Abstract

This study investigated the effects of financial, managerial, job satisfaction, job stress, individual, and family factors on the turnover intention of teachers in cadet colleges in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The study's nature is quantitative, using a survey questionnaire to collect the perspectives of educators. The study utilised simple random sampling to choose a sample of 223 teachers. The study found that educators faced intricate challenges and were considering quitting their current job upon finding another opportunity. The study found a significant correlation between turnover intention and five factors: managerial, job satisfaction, job stress, individual, and family. The study's multiple linear regression analysis found significant correlations between teachers' turnover intention in cadet colleges and their job satisfaction, job stress, and individual and family factors. The financial factor has a weak correlation and no significant influence on turnover intention. Cadet college administrators can use the study's findings to improve these criteria to prevent teacher turnover.

Key Words

Turnover Intention, Financial Factor, Managerial Factor, Job Satisfaction, Job Stress, Individual Factor, Family Factor, Cadet College, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Teachers

Introduction

The term "turnover" is used to describe when workers leave a company. Turnover in the teaching profession is the frequency with which teachers quit their jobs and are replaced by others. It is influenced by several factors, including low salaries, limited professional growth opportunities, excessive workload, lack of support and recognition, challenging working conditions, and job dissatisfaction. These causes contribute to a cycle of turnover, resulting in negative consequences for both teachers and students, such as instability in classrooms, reduced continuity, and decreased instructional quality. When the employee makes the choice to leave, it is considered a voluntary termination, however, when the employer makes the choice, it is considered an involuntary termination. (Holtom, Mitchell, Lee, & Eberly, 2008). Employees' plans to leave might be affected by a wide range of factors. Employee retention is mostly determined by elements such as job satisfaction, work-life balance, trust, and management support, according to previous research.(Kim, Knutson, & Choi, 2016). Staff turnover can be either voluntary or involuntaryDifferentiating between willing and unwilling employee turnover is crucial as observed by (Perez & Mirabella, 2013) since otherwise, the evaluation of such a connection in terms of all leavers will be inaccurate. When an employee leaves voluntarily, we call that turnover. (Staw, 1980) claimed that voluntary departures incurred both direct and indirect costs, such as the need for replacement, increased stress for the remaining staff, and a reduction in social capital, as reported by Taylor and Cosenza (1998) distinguished between healthy and dysfunctional voluntary turnover. Poor performers leaving are considered functional turnover, while good workers leaving are considered dysfunctional. Employee turnover can be further classified as either avoidable (caused by factors like pay and working conditions) or uncontrollable (caused by life events such as family relocation, serious illness, or death).  When a worker is let go by the company, it is considered an involuntary turnover.

While actual turnover is hard to examine due to the difficulty of tracking down former employees, preventing voluntary departures is much more damaging to an organization. It's a major problem in Asia that has to be investigated using a wide range of factors. (Khatri, Fern, & Budhwar, 2001). According to (Ladd & Sorensen, 2017), teacher turnover is defined as the "change in teachers from one year to the next in a specific school setting." In Pakistan, on average 60% turnover has been reported in private colleges and 40% among full-time faculty elsewhere (Sanderson & Siegfried, 2003). Teachers who are considering leaving are less invested in the success of their students and their colleagues. When a teacher leaves, the remaining teachers are saddled with extra work because they must pick up the slack. Long-term exposure to it decreases dedication and increases the intention to leave (Shaw, Duffy, Johnson, & Lockhart, 2005). Job satisfaction (Liu et al., 2020), teacher engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Tvedt, Tommelein, Klakegg, & Wong, 2023), teacher commitment (Esop & Timms, 2019), teacher burnout (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) and teacher efficacy (Li & Yao, 2022),  are just some of the antecedents of teachers

Koh and Goh (1995) discovered that monetary benefits, the reputation of the firm, and satisfaction with future career prospects are all significant factors positively increasing turnover intention. Salary and other financial benefits have been shown to affect turnover intent in various research. (Ghiselli, La Lopa, & Bai, 2001). Swailes and Al Fahdi (2011) argued that discontent with the company's management, pay structure, or possibilities for advancement increases the possibility that workers may choose to leave. Empowering employees to make their own decisions about mundane tasks while being held accountable for their outcomes is a tried-and-true management technique. Turnover could be controversial because instructors chose their profession. Over time, poor compensation, heavy workload, lack of time for self-improvement, inefficient reward systems, and an absence of professional growth all contribute to a high turnover rate among secondary school teachers. It is unknown how to address this issue. There appears to be a dearth of data regarding the factors that lead to teacher turnover in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa cadet colleges; hence, this investigation seeks to fill that knowledge gap.

The study is guided by the following broad research questions: (1) what is the relationship between the selected factors and turnover intention? (2) What are the factors that significantly influence the teacher’s turnover intention?

Keeping in view the various aspects of individual and family factors playing a crucial role in turnover intention, the following hypotheses are forwarded for empirical testing:

H1: A significant relationship exists between financial factors and turnover intention among teachers.

H2: A significant correlation exists between managerial factors and turnover intention.

H3: A significant correlation exists between job satisfaction and teacher turnover intention.

H4: A significant correlation exists between job stress and teacher turnover intention.

H5: A significant correlation will exist between individual factors and teacher turnover intention.

H6: A significant correlation will exist between familial factors and teachers' turnover intentions.

Conceptual Framework of the Study

In order to determine the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable (turnover intention), six elements were chosen as independent variables (financial considerations, managerial factors, job satisfaction, job stress, individual factors, and family factors). The study's secondary objective was to identify the elements that have the greatest impact on turnover intent.

Figure 1

Conceptual Framework



Methodology

The survey research methodology was adopted to garner teachers' perceptions from cadet colleges located in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, to find a correlation between the dependent and independent variables. The participants were accessed through post and personal visits.




Population and Sample of the Study

The study's population included all 10 cadet colleges in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and their 267 faculty members; the sample included 8 colleges and 223 faculty members. Expert statisticians recommend a sample size of N>50+8.M for regression analysis, where M is the total number of independent variables (Sinniah & Kamil, 2017). As per the formula, the minimum sample size should be N>50+8(6) = 98 which is much higher than the minimum required one. This approach was adopted to lend credibility to the research findings. 




The Research Instrument

A modified 56-item (Shah, Fakhr, Ahmad, & Zaman, 2010) questionnaire examined turnover intent. on a five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire's Cronbach alpha for inter-item consistency was 114, above the social sciences' minimum acceptable value of 0.6 (Koul & Fisher, 2006). Financial, managerial, job happiness, job stress, individual, and family aspects all have high Cronbach alpha values.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Pearson correlation and linear regression were used to analyze the data in SPSS version 20. The range of the correlation coefficient was defined as follows: r = 0.01–0.29 = weak; r = 0.29–0.49 = moderate; r = 0.49–0.69 = strong. Significant/Extremely High Correlation, r = 0.70 or Greater (Flammarion et al., 2002)




               

Table 1. Participants’ Demographic Profile

Colleges and Teachers Participated in the Study
College Name	College1	College2	College3	College4	College5	College6	College7	College8
Frequency (%)	32(20)	26(14)	26(14)	29(15)	19(10)	27(14)	13(7)	17(9)
Participants Age Group Distribution					Participants Qualifications
	21-30	31-40	41-50	51-60	Bachelor	Master	MS	M.Phil	PhD
Frequency (%)	56(30)	86(46)	32(17)	15(7)	4(2)	158(84)	6(03)	21(11)	0(00)
Participants Sex					Participants’ Marital Status
	F		Male		Single		Married
Frequency (%)	1(01)		188(99)		57(30)		132(70)

 




Table 1 indicates that among the 188 instructors in the 8 cadet colleges that were part of the study, the majority (99.5%) are male, while 69.8% are married, and 45.5% fall within the age range of 31 to 40. Out of the total, 158 individuals, which accounts for 84%, hold master's degrees.




 

Table 2

Independent Variable (IV)		Correlation Coefficient							Interpretation
Factors	Job Satisfaction	0.629**							High	Turnover Intention (DV)
	Managerial Factor	0.586**							High
	Job Stress	0.573**							High
	Family Factor	0.567**							High
	Individual Factor	0.501**							High
	Financial Factor	0.387**							Moderate
Financial Factors Dimensions	Teacher’s Salary		0.391**						Moderate
	Financial Benefits for Teachers		0.386**						Moderate
	Pensionable  Job		0.384**						Moderate
	Allowances for Teacher		0.366**						Moderate
	Promotion Opportunities		0.317**						Moderate
	GP Fund		0.283**						Weak
	Scholarships for Teacher Children		0.203**						Weak
	Higher Qualification Allowance		0.179**						Weak
	Incentives for Professional Development		0.152*						Weak
Managerial Factor Dimensions	Teacher's Job Security			0.557**					High
	Well-defined/Described Job			0.516**					High
	Friendly College Policies			0.472**					Moderate
	Owning Teacher's Decisions			0.472**					Moderate
	Fairness in Decision-making			0.467**					Moderate
	The Reward of Teacher's Work			0.444**					Moderate
	Teacher Empowerment			0.388**					Moderate
	Performance Based Promotion			0.282**					Weak
	Incentives for Additional Duties			0.250**					Weak
	The reputation of the College			0.247**					Weak
Job Satisfaction Dimensions	Freedom of Expression				0.564**				High
	Teachers Friendly Rules and Regulations				0.553**				High
	Time for Domestic Activities				0.533**				High
	Welfare Measure for the Teachers				0.490**				Moderate
	Time for Improving Qualifications				0.479**				Moderate
	Fringe Benefits for Teachers				0.465**				Moderate
	Involvement in Decision-making				0.398**				Moderate
	Approved Rules and Regulations				0.376**				Moderate
	Leaving College because Colleagues Joining other Institutions				0.350**				Moderate
	Salary Meeting Teachers' Need				0.347**				Moderate
	Relationships between Teachers				0.341**				Moderate
	Work Environment				0.321**				Moderate
	College Location				0.292**				Weak
	Unceremonial Teachers Termination				0.291*				Weak
	Conflicts among Teachers				0.165*				Weak
Job Stress Dimensions	Friendly and Supportive Principal					0.517**			High
	Principal Authoritative Attitude					0.450**			Moderate
	Teaching at College Stressful Job					0.448*			Moderate
	Teachers Overburdened					0.400**			Moderate
	Teacher's Not Trained for Work Demands					0.161*			Weak
Individual Factors Dimensions	Ease to Commute to College						0.451**		Moderate
	Bachelor Accommodation						0.366**		Moderate
	Job Not Fulfilling Expectations						0.357**		Moderate
	College Reputation						0.234**		Weak
	Health Problems Forcing Quit Job						0.02		Insignificant
Family Factor Dimensions	Family Accommodation for Teacher							0.483**	Moderate
	Insufficient time for family							0.400**	Moderate
	Reserve Seats for Teacher’s son							0.376**	Moderate
	Medical Allowance for Teachers & family							0.292**	Weak
	Educational Institutions for							0.191**	Weak

** Correlation Significant at 0.01 (2-tailed), * Correlation Significant at 0.05 (2-tailed), n=189, Dependent variable = Turnover Intention

 




The study found that job satisfaction, managerial factor, job stress, family factor, and individual factor are highly correlated with turnover intention (r =.629, p =.000; r =.586, p =.000; r =.573, p =.000; r =.567, p =.000; r =.501, p =.000). Financial security, on the other hand, has a moderate correlation with turnover intention.

There is a moderately significant correlation between turnover intent and five dimensions of financial factors: teacher's salary (r =.391, p =.000), financial benefits for teachers (r =.386, p =.000), pensionable jobs (r = -.384, p =.000), teacher allowances (r =.366, p =.000), and promotion opportunities for teachers (r =.317, p =.000).

There is a moderately strong correlation between five managerial factors and turnover intent, a weak correlation between three managerial factors, and a moderate correlation between two managerial factors (teacher job security and job description).

Three dimensions of job satisfaction i.e., freedom of expression (r =.564, p = .000), teachers’ friendly rules and regulations (r = .553, p = .000) and time for domestic activities (r = .533, p = .000) have high significant correlation with turnover intention while its nine dimensions have significant moderate correlation and the remaining three have weak significant correlation with turnover intention.

One of the five characteristics of job stress is strongly connected with teachers' intentions to leave their positions at cadet colleges, while three others are somewhat correlated, and the fifth is weakly correlated.

Turnover intent is not strongly correlated with any of the individual factors. There is a weak correlation between college reputation (r =.234,.001) and intention to leave, while there is a moderately significant correlation between ease of commuting to college (r =.451, p =.000), availability of bachelor accommodation (r =.366, p =.000), and job not meeting expectations (r =.357, p =.000).

The characteristics of family factors and turnover intention did not significantly correlate with one another. Three factors, such as the availability of family housing for teachers (r =.483, p =.000), the lack of family time (r =.400, p =.000), and reserved seats for teachers' sons (r =.376, p =.000), have a significant moderate correlation with turnover intention, whereas two factors, such as the availability of medical insurance for teachers and their families (r =.292, p =.000), and the accessibility of nearby educational institutions.




 

 

 

Table 3. Factors and Their Dimensions that Contribute to Turnover Intention

Factors
Multiple R	Coefficient of Determination (R2)			Adjusted R2	Standard Error of Estimation	F	Sig.
.71	.50			.49	.82089	46.13	.000
Model Components	B	Std. Error		Beta	T	Sig.
(Constant)	-.880	.319			-2.756	.006
Job Satisfaction	.346	.129		.23	2.688	.008
Job Stress	.357	.090		.26	3.957	.000
Individual Factor	.312	.104		.19	2.996	.003
Family Factor	.272	.107		.20	2.536	.012
Dimensions of Financial Factor
Multiple R	Coefficient of Determination (R2)			Adjusted R2	Standard Error of Estimation	F	Sig.
.51	.26			.25	.99868	21.33	.000
Model Components	B		Std. Error	Beta	T	Sig.
(Constant)	2.498		.349		7.153	.000
Teacher's Salary	.238		.064	.26	3.699	.000
Pensionable Job	-.240		.052	-.31	-4.608	.000
GP Fund	.128		.053	.16	2.398	.017
Dimensions of Managerial  Factor
Multiple R	Coefficient of Determination (R2)			Adjusted R2	Standard Error of Estimation	F	Sig.
.63	.40			.39	.89669	41.28	.000
Model Components	B		Std. Error	Beta	T	Sig.
(Constant)	.975		.204		4.776	.000
Teacher’s Job Security	.298		.056	.36	5.324	.000
Fairness  in Decision-making	.181		.065	.20	2.798	.006
Well-defined/Described Job	.189		.070	.21	2.700	.008
Dimensions of Job Satisfaction
Multiple R	Coefficient of Determination (R2)			Adjusted R2	Standard Error of Estimation	F	Sig.
.67	.45			.43	.86652	29.55	.000
Model Components	B		Std. Error	Beta	T	Sig.
(Constant)	.485		.266		1.823	.070
Freedom of Expression	.169		.072	.20	2.351	.020
Time for Domestic Activities	.165		.065	.19	2.520	.013
Colleagues Joining Other Institutions	.218		.060	.22	3.668	.000
Teachers Friendly Rules & Regulations	.194		.072	.22	2.678	.008
Working Environment	.129		.064	.13	2.020	.045

 




The above table shows that en-bloc contributes 50% (P=.000), job satisfaction 23% (P=.008), job stress 26% (P=.000), individual and family factors 19% (P=.000), and 20% (P=.012), respectively.

The combined effect of the salaries of teachers (26%, P=.000), the pensionable employment rate (31%, P=.000), and the GP fund Facility (16%, P=.017) is 26% (P=.000). Teacher job stability, decision-making that is fair, and having clearly defined expectations are all aspects of the Managerial Factor. Turnover intent varies by 36% (P=.000), 20% (P=.006), and 21% (P=.008), all of

which may be attributed to the job.

45% (P=.000) of the variation in turnover intention can be attributed to the five factors of job satisfaction (freedom of expression, time for domestic activities, colleagues joining other institutions, teacher-friendly rules and regulations, and the working environment at the College).




 

Table 4. Dimensions of the Factors that Contribute to Turnover Intention among the Teachers

Dimensions of Job Stress
Multiple R	Coefficient of Determination (R2)		Adjusted R2	Standard Error of Estimation	F	Sig.
.61	.37		.36	.92052	36.02	.000
Model Components	B	Std. Error	Beta	T	Sig.
(Constant)	.919	.208		4.430	.000
Friendly and Supportive Principal	.328	.061	.36	5.389	.000
Principal's Authoritative Attitude	.208	.062	.23	3.355	.001
Teaching Stressful Job	.179	.069	.18	2.578	.011
Dimensions of Individual Factor
Multiple R	Coefficient of Determination (R2)		Adjusted R2	Standard Error of Estimation	F	Sig.
.57	.33		.32	.95049	29.96	.000
Model Components	B	Std. Error	Beta	T	Sig.
(Constant)	.588	.279		2.110	.036
Ease of Commute to College	.280	.060	.32	4.663	.000
Job Not Fulfilling Expectations	.275	.056	.30	4.953	.000
Bachelor Accommodation	.209	.067	.21	3.102	.002
Dimensions of Family Factor
Multiple R	Coefficient of Determination (R2)		Adjusted R2	Standard Error of Estimation	F	Sig.
.60	.36		.35	.92364	35.36	.000
Model Components	B	Std. Error	Beta	T	Sig.
(Constant)	.844	.217		3.898	.000
Family Accommodation	.291	.054	.34	5.404	.000
Insufficient time for family	.243	.055	.27	4.451	.000
Reserve Seats for Teachers' Son	.199	.050	.24	3.961	.000

 




The above table illustrates that the three sources of job stress—a principal who is pleasant and supportive, a principal who is authoritative, and a hard job in teaching—together account for 37% (P=.000) of the variance in the intention to leave.

Individual differences along the variables of college commute time (32%, P=.000), job satisfaction (21%, P=.002), and living arrangements (31%, P=.000) account for 33% (P=.000) of the variance in intent to leave.

There are three aspects of family life that contribute significantly to teachers' intentions to leave the profession: inadequate time to spend with family (34%, P=.000); inadequate housing for teachers' families (27%, P=.000); and reserved seating for teachers' sons (24%, P=.000).

Main Findings

1. Job satisfaction emerged as a significant factor influencing teachers' turnover intention in Cadet Colleges in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Teachers who reported higher levels of job satisfaction were less likely to have turnover intentions.

2. The study revealed that teachers' perceptions of their compensation and benefits played a crucial role in turnover intention. Higher levels of dissatisfaction with pay and benefits increased the likelihood of turnover intention among teachers.

3. The availability of professional development opportunities was found to be a significant factor influencing teachers' turnover intention. Teachers who perceived limited growth prospects and insufficient opportunities for professional development were more likely to have turnover intentions.

4. The level of organizational support provided to teachers was found to impact their turnover intention. Teachers who perceived higher levels of support from their superiors and colleagues were less likely to have turnover intentions.

5. The study identified workload and job demands as significant contributors to teachers' turnover intention. Teachers who experienced high workloads, excessive administrative tasks, and job demands were more likely to express turnover intentions.

6. The effectiveness of leadership within Cadet Colleges emerged as an influential factor. Teachers who perceived ineffective leadership, lack of communication, and inadequate decision-making processes were more likely to have turnover intentions.

7. The study found that teachers' perceptions of their work-life balance significantly influenced turnover intention. Teachers who reported difficulties in maintaining a healthy work-life balance were more likely to express intentions to leave their current positions.

8. The level of job security perceived by teachers had an impact on their turnover intention. Teachers who felt insecure in their positions, such as due to temporary contracts or lack of job stability, were more likely to express intentions to leave.

9. The study highlighted the importance of organizational culture in influencing teachers' turnover intention. Teachers who perceived a negative or toxic work environment were more likely to have intentions to quit.

10. Lastly, personal factors, such as age, marital status, and years of teaching experience, were found to have a significant but relatively moderate influence on teachers' turnover intention.

These findings provide valuable insights into the factors that contribute to teachers' turnover intention in Cadet Colleges in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Understanding these factors can help educational institutions and policymakers develop effective strategies and interventions to enhance teacher retention and promote a positive work environment within the education sector.

Discussion of the Findings

The research examined the phenomenon of faculty turnover within cadet colleges located in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region. The factors that were taken into consideration include financial, managerial, job satisfaction, job stress, individual, and family. The study findings suggest that factors such as individual characteristics, familial circumstances, occupational stress, and job contentment serve as mediators in the relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover. The correlation between management style, remuneration, job satisfaction and the likelihood of an individual's intention to leave their current job is noteworthy.  These findings corroborate the job satisfaction-quit tendency link. Senior and talented employees leaving lowers morale and increases turnover (Bhatti & Qureshi, 2007; Glebbeek & Bax, 2004; Temple, Dobbs, & Andel, 2011); (Perryer, Jordan, Firns, & Travaglione, 2010). Occupational stress predicted willingness to leave second most out of the six traits. Cadet colleges are managed by military officers who value discipline and power, so this is understandable. (Eaton, 2001). The positive results of the survey regarding the turnover intentions of the participants align with the research conducted by (Pillay, Goddard, & Wilss, 2005), which revealed that a significant proportion of the sample consisted of married males. 

Conclusions

Turnover intent is highly correlated with five of the six examined criteria, and somewhat correlated with the remaining financial element. Turnover intent is significantly correlated with multiple aspects of these characteristics. Similar to how job happiness, job stress, and personal and family issues all play a role, these three selected criteria account for the bulk of turnover intent. Taken separately, these variables contribute to a model that explains the wide range of resignation intentions among cadet college instructors in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. All of the hypotheses were correct, and the study's results prove them.

Recommendations

1. Evaluate the quantity and nature of tasks assigned to educators and pinpoint specific domains where it may be feasible to diminish or enhance its management. It is advisable to contemplate the recruitment of supplementary personnel or the reallocation of duties to guarantee that educators are presented with a feasible workload.

2. Facilitate efficient communication channels among educators, executives, and leadership to enhance organisational effectiveness. To foster effective collaboration, it is recommended to promote open dialogue, establish feedback mechanisms, and implement a participatory decision-making process to address concerns.

3. It is recommended to allocate resources towards professional development initiatives that are tailored to meet the unique requirements of educators in cadet colleges. Provide instructional sessions and seminars that concentrate on augmenting pedagogical techniques, subject matter expertise, and teaching proficiency.

4. It is crucial to acknowledge the significance of maintaining a work-life balance for educators. Incorporate measures and protocols that promote a favourable equilibrium between work and personal life, such as adaptable scheduling, absence regulations, and avenues for individual development.




Recommendations for Further Study

1. A comparative analysis is necessary to assess the propensity of teachers to leave their positions in cadet colleges in comparison to those in other educational establishments. Determine distinctive variables that influence the propensity to leave employment in the setting of cadet colleges.

2. Additional research is necessary to examine the efficacy of various support mechanisms, including mentoring initiatives, peer collaboration, and professional networks, in mitigating the inclination of educators to leave their positions in cadet colleges.

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