Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyze the gender-based difference in psychological well-being among university teachers—a quantitative study with a population of 192 university teachers from four universities of Islamabad. A random sample technique was used, and 130 university teachers were chosen as a sample of the study. A standardized questionnaire developed by Ryff (2014) consisted of six dimensions, and 42 items were used. The findings of the study revealed that there was a significant difference between “autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, positive relations and self-acceptance” but not in “personal growth”. It is also revealed that men scored high in all scopes of psychological well-being except in the “personal growth” of university teachers.  It may be recommended that by taking care of psychological well-being, educational institutions may reduce the problems of faculty members, which may lead intuitions towards success.

Key Words

Psychological Well-Being, Gender, University Teachers

Introduction

Cutthroat states of the present worldwide world put laborers under a great deal of pressure. Therefore, this pressure impacts their “Psychological Well-Being” (PWB). University instructors, as laborers, additionally sense the impacts of this pressure. Surveying instructors' mental prosperity (PWB) is the early stage in safeguarding instructor's demonstrative wellness and providing them with an environment that supports “self-awareness”. Furthermore, it is vital for great instructors of education’s communications, thusly, might stimulus “understudy self-viability, social capacities, and surprisingly emotional wellness”? 

Mental prosperity (PWB) is worried about a person's judgment in regard to his/her consistent bliss; fulfilment with his corporeal and “psychological wellness”, and in what way it identifies with roughly affects “psychosocial factors” like life fulfilment or (effort) work fulfilment (Garg and Rastogi, 2009). Mental 

prosperity has two significant features. The first is the degree to which individuals experience positive moods and sensations of bliss. So, in this case, the part of cerebral prosperity is suggested as “emotional prosperity” (Diener, 2000). The expression "Epicurean" prosperity is typically cast off to indicate the “emotional sensations” of joy. It mainly contains respectively dualistic segments, an “emotional segment” (from top to toe sure outcome and little bad consequence) and a psychological share (self-actualization with lifespan). It has been highly recommended that a discrete run out from joy when optimistic outcome and contentment with life are equally from top to toe (Carruthers and Hood, 2004). The fewer distinguished tenure; "Eudemonic" affluence is exploited to refer to the deliberate portion of PWB (Garg and Rastogi, 2009). The therapist “Carol Ryff” has nurtured a tremendously strong model that splits “Eudemonic prosperity” into six key typical types of “mental prosperity”. 

Educators' mental prosperity and fulfilment with their everyday working climate are related to their genuine conduct. It has been tracked down that a poor psychosocial environment in a study hall and the offence of understudies can have adverse consequences both on educators' and students' overall prosperity and emotional well-being status just as on business-related or scholarly accomplishment (Rothi, Leavey and Best, 2008). Educating has been positioned as one of the greatest in pressure-related results from an information base of 26 occupations, and the enthusiastic inclusion of educators with their understudies is viewed as the essential clarification for such discoveries (Johnson et al., 2005). 

Realizing instructors' “PWB levels” is significant further related to the security of educator's emotional well-being and expert and self-improvement. Studies identified with the assurance of the degree of prosperity of educators and components that influence their prosperity are believed as essential for the educational environment at the school level, and mediations planning is to advance the nature of training (Bentea, 2015; Renshaw et al., 2014; Roffey, 2012). 

Mental prosperity has been displayed to fill in as a defensive factor to different sorts of mental trouble and to improve one's capacity to "ricochet back" after difficulties (Ryff, Singer, Love, and Essex, 1998). While it has been all around reported that people experience a few distinct kinds of difficulties to psychological well-being, sexual orientation has not been a focal point of these examinations. Simultaneously, ladies have been depicted to be at specific danger for reduced mental prosperity (WHO, 2011).

Objectives

1. To assess the dimensions of psychological well-being among university teachers.

2. To analyze the dimensions of psychological well-being with reference to gender among 

      university teachers.




Hypothesis

1. There is no significant difference between autonomy and gender among university teachers.

2. There is no significant difference in environmental mastery regarding gender among university teachers. 

3. There is no significance between personal growth regarding gender.

4. There is no significant difference in positive relations regarding gender among university teachers. 

5. There is no significant difference between purposes in life regarding gender among university teachers.

6. There is no significance between self-acceptance growth regarding gender.

Literature Review

The lexical definition of well-being, according to Deci and Ryan (2008), is a state of happiness, health, and prosperity. It refers to the most advanced psychological understanding and function. They described happiness as a positive, long-term state that allows people, groups, and countries to develop.

Jahoda was the first to identify the importance of “psychological well-being”, and he primarily introduced it. and mostly presented these ideas as a clinical perspective on mental health. Ryff (1989) extended on Jahoda's work in the field of “psychological well-being”, describing its behaviors and extent. Self-acceptance, life objectives, environmental control, positive relationships with others, autonomy, and personal progress are six elements of psychological well-being identified by Ryff (Usman, 2017).

Within positive mental health studies, the concept of well-being is a complex construct with two basic methods: “subjective well-being and psychological well-being” (Cenksever & Akbas, 2007). Hedonic measures suggest “subjective well-being”, while eudemonic measures reflect “psychological well-being” (Samman, 2007; Kallay & Rus, 2014). The ultimate levels altogether are upright well-being.

The most well-known model for this method is Ryff's. Maslow's (1968) “self-actualization”, Roger's (1961) “fully-functioning person”, Jung's (1933) “individuation”, Allport's (1961) “maturity”, Erickson's (1959) “psychosocial stage model”, Buhlker's (1935) “rudimentary lifespan tendencies” those work for life achievements, Neugarten's (1968) explanation of inner modification, and Jahoda's (1958) standards which are internally connected by Ryff in the standard of progress in “mental health” (Ryff, 1989). The mainly six machineries of this concept are: “autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive interpersonal relationships, life purpose, and self-acceptance” (Ryff & Singer, 1996). The dimensions are described in full below (Ryff, 1989): “Self-acceptance” is at the heart of brain stability; it is a sign of self-actualization, optimal performance, and happiness.

Positive Interpersonal Relationships: The ability to love and have intimate interpersonal relationships based on trust. Self-determination, independence, and internal behaviour regulation are all examples of autonomy—environmental Mastery: The ability to grow and affect the world around you via physical and mental activity. Intentions, ambitions, and a feeling of direction are all examples of purpose in life. Personal Development:

The following summary can be formed based on empirical studies on psychological well-being (Huppert, 2009):

1. The “PWB” is linked to flexible and resourceful thinking, “pro-social behavior”, and “physical well-being”.

2. A person's “PWB” is heavily predisposed by his or her initial upbringing.

3. Interferences that promote constructive insolences and behaviours improve an individual's “PWB”.

4. To reduce the number of persons suffering from “common mental diseases”, a uniform strategy is required.

5. The notion of “PWB”, which emphasizes prosperity somewhat than illnesses, can help to expand our understanding of possible pathways to individual, organizational, and societal well-being.

There are two commonly used “PWB measurement models”. The first is “Carol Ryff's” pattern of “psychological well-being”, in this criteria, the “psychological well-being” actions were shaped (Ryff 1989; Ryff and Keyes 1995). The “PWB measures” advanced by “Ryff” are constructed on “gerontological” and “lifespan research” and signify one absolute approach to “PWB”. Their imaginary foundations were influenced by a variety of factors. Ryff preserved that six important qualities were dependably branded as symptomatic of a decent lifestyle; however, “well-being” concluded consultations with early, middle-aged, and mature associates of the common public. As a result, the “PWB” measures reflect a holistic approach to measuring “PWB”, which taps six key areas: “autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, life purpose, and environment” as well as strong interpersonal relationships. “Self-acceptance” is a key notion in models that define “self-actualization” and totally effective entities. It emphasizes the fitness to form sincere, credulous associates with others while also existence empathic and demonstrative. These entities, on the other hand, remain independent, defying cultural pressures to adapt and comply. “Environmental mastery” represents one's ability to control and function within restrictions, whereas life purpose reflects one's ability to set goals and generate an intellect, of course, both of which subsidize one's sense of meaning. Persons' bulk to raise and reach their particular inside impending is reflected in personal growth. These “PWB” ideas are all foundational, according to Ryff's thesis.

However, the calculated ideal has natural allure, sustenance for the “PWB” balances themselves was merged (Ryff and Keyes 1995; Abbott et al. 2006; Burns and Machin 2009; Clarke et al. 2001). It examined that (Burns and Machin 2009) that various approval considers (1) secondhand a small or a remarkably small kind of “PWB scales” or (2) executed problematic feature, logical techniques of information being referred to (e.g., head part examination with varimax pivot). Undoubtedly, in resolving these issues, two autonomous investigations, utilizing various public examples (Abbott et al. 2006; Burns and Machin 2009), have reliably exhibited at any rate the natural authority, self-awareness, reason throughout everyday life, and self-acknowledgement things can't separate among issues. This ought to not surprising; Clarke, Ryff, and partners announced a serious level of relationship among these four “PWB” causes (Clarke et al. 2001). In any case, in spite of the powerless nesses identified with parts of the scale's underlying development and the scientific constraints of some resulting approval examines, impressive proof relates different “PWB measurements” to a scope of results including natural well-being, effective changes in later life, and better restorative results (Huppert, 2004; Abbott et al. 2006; Fava and Ruini 2003).

Regularly depicted as a hypothetical system of persuasive energies, an additional approximately referred to display that has accepted the impression of Eudaimonia as a focal part of prosperity is “Ryan and Deci's” self-assurance hypothesis (SDT) (Ryan and Deci. 2001). SDT portrays three indispensable mental and social provisions, which include “self-rule, skill, and relatedness”. A momentous part of the exploration inside this system centres around recognizing the components by which innermost and external motorists of individual inspiration understand main necessities. Consumes explained that (Burns and Machin 2009) the shared characteristic with self-rule and affiliation from the “SDT” and Ryff “ PWB models” and further proposed that the “SDT ability factor” might be identified with the superordinate “PWB factor” that mirrored the scales (“ecological authority, self-awareness, reason throughout everyday life, and self-acknowledgement”) which “Burns and Abbott” independently recognized (Abbott et al. 2006; Burns and Machin 2009). As per “SDT”, the consummation of these three requirements is fundamental for “mental development and psycho-sensible well-being”. Abundant “SDT research” has zeroed in on distinguishing and inspecting the pathways by which social and social variables work with or hinder the satisfaction of these necessities. Centrally, “SDT” places that people (1) practical specialists in fields, with the capability to dominate personal determinations and moods; (2) are intrinsically development arranged; and (3) essential a subsidiary social climate to take a stab at the ideal turn of events. Inside a life expectancy viewpoint, the ability to fulfil these necessities will fluctuate with competitive decays, for example, with changes in “economic well-being” (e.g., resigned), connections (e.g., bereft), “actual well-being” (improvement old enough related infections), and vicinity to decease. In this way, fulfilment of necessities is suspected of shifting in various levels of significance as a result of various seminal periods. While very much approved and referred to in different spaces of the conduct sciences, SDT has had just a restricted impact in the neuropsychology circle.

It is extensively believed that non-public relationships with kids come up with the money for the instructor’s inner rewards and provide that means to their work. Teacher–scholar relationships are frequently noted as one of the center motives for staying inside the profession (O ’Connor 2008). Hargreaves (2000) performed in-intensity interviews with 60 instructors and observed that relationships with college students had been the maximum essential supply of leisure and motivation. This becomes observed for each number one and secondary faculty instructors, even though the findings indicated extra emotionally excessive relationships in primary than in secondary schools. Elementary instructors skilled each extra bad and superb feelings and referred extra frequently to incidents of anger and frustration. Secondary instructors tended to explain non-public relationships with college students extra in phrases of acknowledgement and respect (Hargreaves, 2000). Teachers’ “mental well-being” and pleasure with their everyday operating surroundings are related to their real behaviour. It has been observed that terrible psychosocial weather in a schoolroom and the misconduct of students will have bad consequences each on instructors’ and students’ “preferred well-being” and intellectual fitness fame in addition to on work-associated or instructional achievement.

Avsec, Masnec and Komidar (2009) carried out a look at character developments and emotional intelligence as predictors of instructors’ “mental well-being”. The effects of the look at confirmed excellent predictive validity of character developments, for they accounted for 22 to 43% of in distinctive “mental well-bein”g scales. Predictive validity of emotional intelligence is likewise excellent; however, whilst controlling for character developments is a way worse because it bills for most effective 1 to 3% of the variance in “well-being” scales. “Panatika, Khadijah, Badria”, Rajaba, Rahmana, Shaha (2011) carried out a look at the effect of labor own circle of relatives struggle on “mental well-being” amongst college instructors in Malaysia. The effects of the look at confirmed that the extent of labor interference with own circle of relatives (WIF) is better in comparison to the extent of own circle of relatives interference with paintings (FIW) a number of the respondents. Time measurement the very best stage to make a contribution to the extent of labor-own circle of relatives struggle. Work- own circle of relatives struggle has a poor effect on intellectual health, lifestyles pride and intellectual health. Simbula, Panari, Guglielmi and Fraccaroli (2012) carried out a look at instructors’ “well-being” and effectiveness with connection with the position of the interaction among activity needs and activity sources. The goal of the prevailing look at changed into to analyze the interaction among activity needs and activity sources, with the aid of using the usage of the framework of the Job Demands-Resources Model. A questionnaire changed into administered to 439 Italian instructors operating in secondary schools. The cluster evaluation confirmed three agencies of instructors, named Resourceful, Stressed and Wealthy, who fluctuate notably in all taken into consideration paintings outcomes. Our effects verify the fee of activity sources as a middle component that stimulates private increase and permits instructors to reap paintings dreams no matter the extent of activity needs.

Vazi, Ruiter, Bart Van den Borne, Dumont, Martin and Reddy (2011) carried out an observation of signs of subjective and “mental health” as correlates of teacher exhaustion inside the “Eastern Cape”. The possessions of observe monitor measures of subjective and “mental health” brought notably to the defined variance in teachers’ emotions of depersonalization and emotional exhaustion. The observation shows that signs of subjective and mental health may be evaluated for inclusion in burnout prevention interventions in teachers. In the closing, a long time has been extensively studied mental nicely-being studies with exclusive works and trade in communal relations of research choice form of the expanse of isolated regimes (Cole, 2002). Ryfff (1989) supposed, resources have lawfulness, and lots attempt several rudiments greatest of exploit, inclusive of the conclusion of dreams of character, and it can also be in struggle unabridged with short-time old-fashioned pleasure (Ryff, 1989). “Mental fitness” covered inner sensitivity of agreeably and making sure of very personal efficacy, counting on very own, “cap potential competition, intergenerational dependency” and self-actualization cap potential of cultured and expressive etc. (Salimi et al., 2010; Abaszadeh, 2003). “Most psychiatrists, psychologists, intellectual” appropriateness scholars disregard superb elements of fitness (Seligman, 2003). “Well-being” phrase which means lifestyles with fitness and pleasure (Jombikova and Kovea, 2009). 

The sentiment of nicely is the superb sentiment, sense restored for the popular pleasure of regimes which incorporate atmosphere and others in various choices of “family, job, etc.” (Myers and Diener, 1995). Ryfff (1989), the most important mental illness philosopher accepts accurate with that there is a terrific norm for a splendid intellectual operationalization for all schemes (Ryff, 1989). “Ryff and Singer (2006)”, because the mental nicely-being something extra than happiness and preference, raised own acceptance, Optimistic dealings with others, self-sufficiency, “environmental mastery”, reason in routines and Individual Growth (Ryff and Singer, 2006). There are numerous elements which consequence on attractiveness rational nicely-being improving the sensation of benefit and facilitate acquires precise remarks and isolationist environment and upgrading leanings of herbal (Ryan and Deci, 2001). Moreover, how to address strain are a few of the elements that powerful intellectual fitness and mental nicely-being of humans. Conflict social is a state of affairs wherein, or extra humans disagree approximately simple subjects referring to the organization collectively or imply sensitivity resentment virtual to every further (Schermerhorn et al., 2004).

Methodology

This research study was quantitative in nature. Populations were based on teachers taken from four Universities in Islamabad. The total population was 192 university teachers. According to the table of Krejcie & Morgan (1970), 130 university teachers was chosen by random sample technique. Data were collected through a standardized questionnaire developed by Ryff (2014). It contains 42 items and 6 dimensions. Mean, standard deviation and t-test were applied as statistical techniques. 

Results

Table 1. Mean and Standard Deviation of dimensions of psychological well-being

Dimensions	Mean	Standard Deviation
Autonomy	24.8538	3.0247
Environmental Mastery	25.3846	4.1733
Personal Growth	24.4308	4.5305
Positive Relations	25.2385	4.6535
Purpose in Life	23.5692	5.5823
Self-Acceptance	25.5000	4.2449

 




Table 1 shows the mean and standard deviation of dimensions of psychological well-being. It reveals that the mean value of self-acceptance is greater than the mean values of other all dimensions. This means that university teachers prefer more self-acceptance as compared to other dimensions of psychological well-being.




 

Table 2.Gender Wise Mean, Standard Deviation and t-test of Autonomy in University Teachers

Gender	N	M	SD	df	t	p
Male	72	26.5694	2.4427	12.8	9.285	.000
Female	58	22.7241	2.2226

 




Table 2 shows that it is important variance between the “mean scores” of autonomy of “male and female university teachers”. It also indicates that male university teachers have a higher sense of autonomy as compared to female university teachers (MMale= 26.5694>MFemale = 22.7241; p<.001).




 

Table 3. “Gender Wise Mean, Standard Deviation” and t-test of Environmental Mastery in University Teachers

Gender	N	M	SD	df	t	p
Male	72	26.0972	4.6486	128	2.201	.030
Female	58	24.5000	3.3287

 




Table 3 directs that “male university teachers” give more preference to environmental mastery as compare to “female university teachers” (MMale=26.0972>MFemale=24.5000), whereas the p value is .030; therefore, this difference is significant with respect to environmental mastery.




 

Table 4. “Gender Wise Mean, Standard Deviation” and t-test of Personal Growth in University Teachers

Gender	N	M	SD	df	t	p
Male	72	24.5694	5.1398	128	0.388	.699
Female	58	24.2586	3.6733

 




Table 4 shows that there is no main composed statistical difference between the mean scores of “personal growth” between “male and female teachers teaching at university level” and p-value is .699; therefore, the difference is not significant with reference to personal growth.




 

Table 5. Gender Wise Mean, Standard Deviation and t-test of Positive Relations in University Teachers

Gender	N	M	SD	df	t	p
Male	72	26.3194	3.0249	128	3.044	.003
Female	58	23.8966	5.8570

 




Table 5 directs that “male university teachers” focus more to build positive relations with others parallel to “female university teachers” (MMale=26.3194>MFemale=23.8966), whereas the p-value is .003; therefore, this difference is significant with respect to positive relations.




 

 

Table 6. “Gender Wise Mean, Standard Deviation” and t-test of purpose in life among University Teachers

Gender	N	M	SD	df	t	p
Male	72	26.1389	4.8565	128	6.795	.000
Female	58	20.3793	4.7381

 




Table 6 shows that it is important statistical variance among the “mean scores” of purpose in life of “male and female university teachers”. It also indicates that “male university teachers” have a higher sense of purpose in life as compared to “female university teachers” (MMale= 26.1389>MFemale = 20.3793; p<.000).




 

Table 7. “Gender Wise Mean, Standard Deviation” and t-test of Self-Acceptance in University Teachers

Gender	N	M	SD	df	t	p
Male	72	27.7083	2.5752	128	8.094	.000
Female	58	22.7586	4.3258

 




Table 7 directs that “male university teachers” give more preference to self-acceptance as compare to “female university teachers” (MMale=27.7083> MFemale=22.7586), whereas the p value is .000; therefore, this difference is significant with respect to self-acceptance.

Discussion

According to hypothesis 1, no significant difference found in autonomy as well, as “male university teachers” has a higher sense of autonomy than females, so we can say that the null hypothesis is rejected. Similar results found in a study by Matud, Curbelo & Fortes (2019), whereas conversely, results found in research by Ahrens & Ryff (2006) and Karasawa, Curhan, Markus, Kitayama, Radler & Ryff (2011).  

In hypothesis 2, it was stated that there is no significant difference between environmental mastery regarding gender, but the null hypothesis is rejected here. This may be due to the fact that occurrence of a difference in family arrangements and responsibilities among gender in our society.

As mentioned in hypothesis 3, no significant difference in “personal growth”, a null hypothesis was confirmed in the study. The research of Matud et al. (2019) showed conversely result from this study. The reason may be that the education level among gender was similar in this study.

According to hypothesis 4, there is no significant difference in positive relations in gender; a null hypothesis is rejected here—a similar result found in the study of Schwartz, Keyl, Marcum and Bode (2009).

In hypothesis 5, it was indicated that there is no significant difference among a purpose in life regarding gender; a null hypothesis was not confirmed. In this dimension, male university teachers have a higher sense than females; this difference also found in the research of Matud et al. (2019).

As stated in hypothesis 6, no difference in self-acceptance among male and female university teachers. The null hypothesis is rejected according to the result of the study. The existence of male scored was higher than females and the same result found in the research study of Matud et al. (2019) and Ahrens et al. (2006). The reason may be the difference between the chronological age of male and female university teachers that define the persons’ position in society.

Conclusion

1. It is concluded that “male university teachers” have a higher sense of autonomy.

2. It is concluded that male university teachers prefer “environmental mastery” more as compared to “female university teachers”.

3. It is concluded that there is no significant difference between “personal growth” regarding gender.

4. It is concluded that “male university teachers” prefers positive relations with others as compared to “female university teachers”.

5. It is concluded that “male university teachers” have a higher sense of purpose in life, parallel to “female university teachers”. 

6. It is concluded that “university teachers” focuses on self-acceptance.

7. It is concluded that “male university teachers” focuses more on self-acceptance as compared to “female university teachers”. 

Recommendations

To build upon the conclusion of this research studies 

• It is recommended that by taking care of psychological well-being, an organization or institution tend to reduce turnover, illness and rate of absenteeism among faculty members of the university.

• It is suggested that the pension and reward system may influence the motivation of the faculty members, which lead them towards personal growth.

• It is recommended that the arrangement of professional induction and training system may enhance the skills of faculty members of the university.

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