Abstract

This study explores the causes of Child Labour and its adverse impact on Universalization of enrollment. Objectives of the study were: to explore the determinants of CL and Universalization of enrollment and to find out different kinds of hurdles in the Universalization of Enrollment as experienced by Teachers. This study was mixed method exploratory sequential in nature. Population of the study was parents or guardians of the total 992 Child Labourers and 2939 primary teachers. The sample of the study for QUAL phase was 20 participants while for Quantitative 147 teachers and 100 parents. For Qualitative data collection 20 interviews and for Quantitative data collection 2 questionnaires for teachers and parents were used. For Qualitative data NVIVO-10 & for Quantitative data analysis SPSS supported by descriptive & inferential statistics was used. At the end it was recommended that CL should be eliminated through universal enrollment in primary schools.

Key Words

Child Labour, Universalization of Enrollment in School, Adverse Effect

Introduction

Education and Training was and will consistently be the most amazing asset that can be accustomed to realize individual and national turn of events. It is one of the furthermost occasions in the range of the state and a greatest venture on human capital (Hanushek and Kimko, 2000; Rumberger, 2001). Very much prepared human asset points more prominent efficiency and high style of living for all. Thinking about the youngsters as the nation's future's labor, any administration wishing to boost its possibilities would underwrite profoundly on fundamental training (Hupfeld, 2007). Exploration shows that great essential instruction advance youngsters' initial learning and later achievement, guaranteeing their groups of financial solidness (Coley, Lombardi and Sims, 2015; Dearing, McCartney and Taylor, 2009). As an imperative element of strengthening and neediness decrease, essential instruction holds a conspicuous spot inside the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Birchler and Michaelowa, 2015). The In Cheon Declaration 2015 complements the arrangement of 12 years of free comprehensive, fair quality essential and optional instruction (UNESCO, 2015). A similar objective is reflected in the widened Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that supplanted the previous limited MDGs in September 2015 (Goal 4, Birchler and Michaelowa, 2015). The Government of Pakistan is completely dedicated to instruction framework that ensures the privilege of each student quality and applicable training. Its drawn out goal is to give each resident fundamental quality training, notwithstanding the acknowledgment of general access to essential instruction (Nadvi, 2008). ILO declares that “work done by young children is important for the children, because it is not only necessary for children’s growth alone but also makes them additionally skillful and more competent than others who face problems for their survival in the prevailing societies. It will be useful in the formation a successful member of a society in future” ‘On the other hand the word “Child Labour” on which this in hand study mainly focuses and revolves has been explained in different ways by various experts & psychologist according to the need and prevailing situations of the locality they live. Some has termed the name child to “a young of the age 18 or 16 years, while in some countries including Pakistan the age limit comes down to 14 years for a child owing the country’s financial conditions”. However according to ILO convention 138 “Child Labourers are those children leading lives prematurely like adult, normally they work for long hours in contrast to very low wages under very adverse conditions which not only damage their health but their mental development as well”. The word “Child Labour” actually refers to “the work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity and is harmful to their physical, mental and social development” (ILO, 2002). Kamwaria, (2001) says “Child Labour include both paid and unpaid works and activities that harms children either physically, psychologically, socially and morally. Furthermore, she explained that it is that sort of work which deprives children of the opportunity for schooling” (Kamwaria, 2001).

Statement of the Problem

Many research studies conducted in over the globe or specially in our country Pakistan shows that “there is a big inverse relationship between Child Labour and Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools, that is to say wherever there is abundance of Child Labour, there is no hope and prospect or simply a chance of Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Education or in schools. So there is a desperate and dire need to address the problem seriously and on emergency basis: why all out of schools children are not been enrolled? If enrolled somehow what makes them to leave off their schools prematurely before completion of at least Primary Schooling? What are the preventing forces of children from the schools? Or what is the biggest stopping agent of children or their parents whom they feel hesitation to go to schools or to enroll their children? So this issue which really is a big challenge and indeed a moment of deep concern and distress needs serious attention and demands to explore the stopping, pushing or pulling forces or agents and why Universalization of Enrollment at Primary level has not been so for achieved? Is Child Labour the lonely main obstacle and a big Challenge for Universalization of Enrollment in Primary schools? Is it possible to eradicate Child Labour completely from this planet? Are there some basic and motivating forces behind this issue to overcome and reduce this ever-rising rate of Child Labour & to universalize enrollment? Is Universalization of Enrollment in Primary schools the only alternative for Child Labour?” This was a basic motivating force for the researcher which goaded and attracted him towards this in hand research study.




Significance of the Study                It is expected that the present study will be relatively noteworthy and important for all parents/guardians, teachers, curriculum developers, policy makers, administrators, stakeholders, population welfare and Child Labour department & community leaders. The real story behind research is that on one side this study explores a very important issue (Child Labour) prevailing all over the developed and developing countries of the world and on the other hand it focuses on a very important issue of Universalization of enrollment at Primary level. 




Objectives of this Study 

Objectives of this study were: 

1- To explore the determinants of Child Labour & Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools of District Bannu 

2- To find out different kinds of hurdles in the Universalization of Enrollment in Primary School as experienced by Teachers in District Bannu in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa




Research Questions                                                                      

The research has to answer the subsequent questions:

1. what are the different determinants of Child Labour and Universalization of Enrollment in District Bannu?                                                                                                                          

2. What are the different factors responsible for Child Labour as perceived by Parents of the child labourers at District Bannu? 




Population

Here in this study all the children, their parents or guardians of the total 992 Child Labourers who were

 involved in Child Labour and all the Primary School Teachers (2939) including 1688 (male) and 1251(female) of the District Bannu, was population of the study.  

Sample Size and Procedure

The sample of the study for Qualitative Phase was 20 interviewees (10 from each category of admitted and never admitted Child Labourers from both sexes of children), using convenient sampling and for Quantitative Phase 100 parents or the relatives of the Child Labourers and 150 teachers teaching at Primary Schools at District Bannu was taken as sample by the researcher using the following sampling formula. Here in this study the interview question and sub-questions were designed in such a way to get a wide range of detailed responses of the participants to get in-depth information about the children, their work activities and schooling in their interview”.                                                        

 

Table 1. Interview Set Up

Gender	Male Children		Female Children		Total Interviewees
Category	Never Admitted in schools	Left the School	Never Admitted in schools	Left the School	20
	5	5	5	5
Total	10		10

Source: Author.

 

Table 2. Sampling Frame (Sample Sizes Calculated by Yamane’s Formula)            

Category	Gender		Population size(N)	Sample size, n     for 95% confidence level          ±10%
	Male	Female
Parents/Guardians (Child Labourers)	496	496	992	100
Teachers	1688	1251	2939	150
Total	2184	1747	3931	250

Source: Formula adopted from (Yamane, 1967). 

 

Instrumentation

According to Creswell (2007), “research instruments are the testing devices that are used for measuring a given phenomenon. These instruments are either made up of interviews for (qualitative studies) or questionnaires (surveys or quantitative studies) or both types seldom. Each of the research tools (interview or questionnaire) serves as a guideline for data collection”. The following two instruments were developed by the researcher in order to collect data for both the types of approaches for this in hand study.

a) - Semi-structured interview (Qualitative data) with a central question followed by few short-related questions for Child Labourers or their parents or guardians.

b) - A survey that contains a set of questionnaires (quantitative data) supporting by 3-Point Likert Scale for decision making.

                                                                                                                                    

Delimitation of the Study                                                                                                                          Due to local traditions, customs, insecurity and some unavoidable conditions of the research area the study was delimited to:

Two categories (admitted and never admitted category of children) Child Labourers, parents and their guardians and primary school teachers of District Bannu.                                                                                                  The children who are in the age group of 5-14 years of age                                                          

 

Limitation of the Study                                                                                                                                    This study was restricted just to Child Labourers, their parents or guardians and Primary school teachers whereby children have dropped out of District Bannu, because there are a huge numbers of child labourers, parents and primary school teachers in the said District.

Central Question for Qualitative Data Collection

The central interview question for qualitative phase of this study was below:

Have you ever been admitted in any school or not? If admitted then did you leave the school due to labour or having leisure time then started to work? Whatever the situation was please! Explain your position in detail?

Review of Related Literature

Education is and will be the most essential part of human being. It makes the future ways clear and smoothens and leads eventually to a successful life. ILO declares that “work done by young children is important for the children, because it is not only necessary for children’s growth alone but also makes them additionally skillful and more competent than others who face problems for their survival in the prevailing societies. It will be useful in the formation a successful member of a society in future” ‘On the other hand the word “Child Labour” on which this in hand study mainly focuses and revolves has been explained in different ways by various experts & psychologist according to the need and prevailing situations of the locality they live. Some has termed the name child to “a young of the age 18 or 16 years, while in some countries including Pakistan the age limit comes down to 14 years for a child owing the country’s financial conditions”. However to ILO convention 138 “Child Labourers are those children leading lives prematurely like adult, normally they work for long hours in contrast to very low wages under very adverse conditions which not only damage their health but their mental development as well”. The word “Child Labour” actually refers to “the work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity and is harmful to their physical, mental and social development” (ILO, 2002).                                       The “Global Report on Child Labour” compiled by the “International Labour Organization” in May, (2002) exposed so as to “across the world there are (250,000,000) poor children between the ages of 5 and 16 years involved in Child Labour. These children are living in very bad conditions. Most of these children were working in agriculture farms, domestic work and mining; all of the aforementioned activities are unsuited to the children’s age and not compatible with their health, mental or psychological level. As such works are considered hazardous to their health, disrupts their schooling and offers a very few opportunities for their progress and the attainment of good life chances they are termed child labour” (ILO-IPEC, 2008).Due to the sensitivity of the problem much local and international attention is being given to the vital and crucial “social issue”. As a result “the number of child labourers had decreased by 2010 appreciably, while the reported estimate of children who were engaged in hazardous type of works were (115,000,000). Of that number, (53,000,000) were children under the age of 15-14 years. Over (8,000,000) of those children were in various forms of forced labour, such as slavery debt bondage while some were victims of child trafficking, prostitution and child pornography as well” (Tariq, 2013).

Similarly, according to ILO, 2013 approximately “7.2% of South Asian children having age group 5-14 years are child labourers. On the basis of publicly existing data, it is expected that in South Asia out of a total of 300 million children 21.6 million children are child labourers”. Say for example in Bangladesh 5.05 million out of 35.06 million, India 11.2 million out of 210 million, Nepal 1.660 million out of 6.225 million, Pakistan 3.3 million out of 40 million and Sri Lanka 0.475 million out of 3.18 million children are working respectively (ILO, 2013).

The bitter fact behind the child labourers in our country is mainly Poverty, uneducated parents, worst economic conditions, below standard educational set-up, unawareness of the people, high level of unemployment and lack of govt commitment and interest are some of main pushing factors behind the child labour issue that will be explored in the later review chapters of the thesis and also the answer to the question what is so particular about our country Pakistan that the number of child laborers are ever increasing in relation to other neighboring courtiers of the region. To this question why it is so the shortest and brief  answer is the lack of physical resources, commitment and interest of prevailing Gov’ts, but the countries they have overcome the problem of Child Labour and universalize their primary education have well organized set up of standard quality primary education and a well active, functional  and enforced check and balance system supported by enough amount of their ‘GDP’ like that in Sri Lanka (7.5%), China (7.03) Maldip (6.10) and India (5.14%) in comparison to Pakistan (2.1% ) of S. Asia (Nadvi, 2008).

“This global problem is becoming more and more intensive with time, because we can observe that a huge amount of fresh, innocent and new faces are pushed into work market, though they do not want to do any work, but they want and wish to be in any school with their colleagues but some powerful hands compels them to do so, which is completely against the international Child Labour laws”. They seldom come to any job personally rather they are pushed into the world of work by someone. There are some hidden forces and hands that push them into work market. They not only are depriving them from their early childhood, their healthy life, but from their basic legitimate right of the ‘EDUCATION’ also. The figures released by (UNICEF) says “the total number of Child Labourers in the entire world is nearly sixteen lakh aging 5-14 years, they all are brought into the world of work by these hidden powerful forces” (Shinwari, 2011).

“Goal 1 to 3 of the MDGs demands for struggle against excessive poverty, attaining of universal primary education, uphold gender equality and women's empowerment by achieving gender parity in education.  Poverty has been over and over again been measured the key cause for upholding of the Child Labour, because it drives children prematurely to workplace. The removal of Child Labour is a crucial constraint to the suppression of enormous poverty and hunger” (Malik, 2015).

As we know, “The MDGs and Child Labour are closely connected and allied with poverty and scarcity of enough demand of education or educational institution added up to the basics of this curse of Child Labour. Without a doubt, it is poverty that is connected with societal discrimination & social ruling out of these actors are narrowly linked to Child Labour”. Scarcity of education and lack of provision of basic facilities to the young children and the increasing rate of Child Labour are definitely narrowly interrelated. The very important and most universal motive for criticizing the curse of Child Labour is just possible and hidden in the progress of individual. Achieving Universal Primary Education (MDG 2) is dependent on liberty from labour to set aside the children to attend school and perform well, the simple things the other South Asian countries have overcome” (Rena, 2009).

Similarly “Education For All” (EFA) has six main goals with some very broad and long term objectives. It has put early childhood care and education on top of its list, followed by universal provision of primary and secondary education, to bring tremendous perfection in adult literacy rates, similarly provision of vocational as well as technical education to all citizens, exterminating gender favoritism & strengthening the overall quality of education. But in spite of all these efforts Pakistan progress towards the six EFA goals is very nominal and negligible (Delprato, 2012).

The leading impediment to achieve the “MGD” and to eradicate Child Labour is lying behind the reality by facilitating the families to support their families to send their children to schools just by providing them financial support and also provide them all kinds of resources at their doorstep. It is an accredited fact that many families send their children to certain workplaces to do some sort of work instead of playgrounds whereby children could attain their overall development just in order to afford educational expenses and don’t avail the opportunities provided by Gov’t. The arrangements for obligatory education and the enforcement of Child Labour laws may probably help to transform the old and rigid communal customs of the parents by sending their children to school and dropping down the predominance of “Child Labour” trend from the society (Molfenter, 2011).

On the other hand making primary education compulsory in the world would probably bring 70 % decrease in the current number of Child Labourers which is a very good sign for the policy makers. In country like Pakistan one can observe that educational facilities are much limited to students, teachers and parents.  As a result not only the numbers of Child Labourers are increasing steadily, but inversely the numbers of children enrolled are decreasing day by day which is a dilemma. If the same trend continued for more time as well that is having not enough access to Primary Education, it will definitely add more to the Child Labour rate more rapidly in the near future (Grugel, 2015).

Child Labour badly affecting the performance of students, because they have not been able sometimes to participate in very important lessons taught to them in their classes seldom & later on they proved to be very weak in their academic achievements. If a child become a victim to these kind of circumstances then he/she will definitely put extra  load not only the child itself but on the entire system of education as a whole (Grimsrud, 1998).

In Pakistan efforts have been started from the very beginning to uproot these sorts of children’s activities, but not so far very much successful. As for example according to “Constitution of Pakistan, 1973 under Article-3, it is the legitimate and lawful duty of the prevailing Government to make sure for the complete eradication of each and every shape of violence on children and the steady execution of the basic laws regarding youth especially children”. Also Article-11 (3) affirms that “not a single child should be given permission who is beneath 14 years of age to take part in any kind of light work in any industry or in any harmful labour or in any earning activities”. Similarly Article 5-A Constitution of Pakistan, 1973 obliges that “state should also make free primary schooling available by any cost to all children between the initial period of five to sixteen years” (Wasti, 2014). Just like Punjab, in the year 2011, the “Labour Department of Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa” also tried to take some practical steps to reduce the ever increasing trend of Child Labour, and presented their own draft for its eradication. The name of this very draft bill prepared by the related Department was “Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Prohibition of Employment of Children and Regulation of Conditions for Work of Adolescent Act, 2011”. The latest estimates by Khoso in 2010 reveals that about “1.13 million children and adolescents from age of 10 to 16 years were engaged in labour in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, but in the next year 2011 this number has decreased slightly to 1.01 million labourers”. Similarly “in 2011 there were 0.30 million estimated children from the age group 10-14 and in 2010 the number was 0.25 million children in Child Labour” (Mohammad, 2010).

On the other side of the Child Labour issue, it is a universal and established fact that education is one of the most significant and predefined undertakings of the 21st century which guarantees the peace, advancement, progress, globalization and a mean of growing worldwide competition and gradual means of eradicating Child Labour . It can be seen and found from numerous national & international surveys related to education that “Pakistan is lagging behind many countries of the region in uplifting the Education for All Goals (EFA)”. Although Pakistan is the signatory to many global treaties like Dakar Framework of Action for Education, where it was unanimously agreed & approved by every all developing states and nations that “they will try to achieve the Target of (EFA) by all means in the meeting held in Senegal in 2000, but not much successes have been achieved yet” (Wasti, 2014).

The “adult literacy rate in Pakistan in spite of strenuous efforts fails to go beyond the target line of 50%,  also the women literacy rate is much more belittling as it needs to be a head of (60%), but unfortunately it remains very low i.e. (33%)”.  As it was supposed to be achieved, but now it is for sure that “we would not be able reach the target to achieve the adult literacy by 2015”. Though according to NEMIS reports “we are struggling and progressing towards the target gradually, but unfortunately the movements towards the accomplishment of the target are remarkably very sluggish with sex decimation and parity of objective is very alarming of not being accomplished by the year 2015 with more than 6 million children are still out of school in our country” Noshaba, (2014). To National Education Management Information System released report by highlighting that “our country Pakistan has an overall 260,903 educational institutions where 41,018,384 students are now a day’s getting education from their 1,535,461 teachers. These teachers are at work in about 180,846 public as well as 80,057 private schools. Furthermore briefly it can be concluded that 31% of these educational institutions are organized by private sector while 69% of these are public sectors institutes” (Malik, 2013-14).

Looking at the available figure gathered by NEMIS 2013-14 “in Pakistan there are 146,185 formal primary schools, 42,147 middle level schools (Lower Secondary) and 29,874 secondary schools, while 75% are public sector schools actively playing their role in Pakistan Education System, furthermore the number of private sector schools in our country is about ten percent while the rest of these are either non-formal or Deeni Madrassah schools” (Malik, 2013-14).

NEMIS further declared that the “total enrolment of both male and female in primary schools is about 17.6 million with 9.8 million (56%) boys and 7.7 million (44%) girls. So is the case of enrollment at middle level where about sixty lac of children are studying comprising fifty seven percent of boys and forty three percent of girls, whereas at secondary level number of children enrolled are twenty eight lac making of fifty eight percent of boys and forty two percent of girl. Here we can observe one fact that as the level of education increases the number of female participation decreases steadily which a dilemma, say for example  as it is at primary level 44%, at middle level it becomes 43% and at secondary level it drops down to 42%” (Umar & Faiz, 2013).

Our country Pakistan also has a very widespread system of Non-Formal Basic Education (NFBE) as well, where nearly 2.5 million students are studying. Because it was not less than a challenge to establish a parallel Non-formal Basic Education Schools for out-of-school children, but this was also started by the Govt of Pakistan to boost up literacy rate. At Present, there are about thirteen thousands (BECS) working all over the country, where round about six lakh students are enrolled. At the end of 5th class formal sector carries out the examination and permits children to make entry into class 6th in recognized quarter of schools who succeed in the said assessment criteria”. These “Basic Education Community Schools (BECS) are totally funded by the center which works directly under the Ministry of Education, Trainings and Standards in Higher Education” (Malik, 2013-14).

The situation in other province is not much satisfactory in this regards but in Province Punjab it is quite appreciable and satisfactory and now a days they are leading the country in this respect. They have a reputable and a well-structured “Non-Formal Basic Education Schools System” in the selected areas out of their own provincial budget”. Besides, these institutions they have a well-designed “National Commission for Human Development” (NCHD) scheme as well. They have organized and functioned round about one thousand “feeder schools” for grades I-III learners in countryside regions to perk up the entree of new children and to provide financial aid in bringing children in the arena of primary education”. Similarly knowing the extent to which child labour exclusion and executing the right to education for all children are tangled, and developing an appropriate policy and programme response, adds value to global efforts to attain these twin goals (Ahmed, 2014).

Unlike the public sector of education “Private Sector is performing their active role for the endorsement of education in Pakistan and so far has shown very good satisfactory results as well” and as a result Private sector enrolment is increasing day-by-day”. As “National Education Management Information System” pointed out the fact that in the year 2012-2013 in the entire dominion the amount of primary schools working under private sectors were 17,093, whereas the number of schools at middle level were 25,658 and that of high schools were 17,696. On the other side the total number of students studying at primary schools were forty eight lac making round about thirty four percent of the children studying in private sector of educational institutions. Furthermore it is hoped that thirty four percent  more male and thirty three percent of female children will be bring into the educational institutions to uplift the literacy rate by the end of 2016” (Malik, 2013-14).

As mentioned the hindering factors above, it is a universal fact that Child Labour is one of the biggest obstacle in the way of education for all. As many studies and researches shows that education has its central role in the eradication & the prevention of Child Labour from the surface of this planet and has helped in preparing a skilled workforce in the shape of well-balanced citizens of the society as well. According to a report released by “International Programme for Elimination of Child Labour”, “tremendous improvement can be seen within recent years in general public awareness regarding the dilemma of Child Labour and enrollment of new children”(IPEC, 2012).

Going through the history and the previous researches it is concluded that, “along many small blockages and hindrances, Child Labour is also considered to be a most vital barrier to the accomplishment of Education for All (EFA)”. It is also a fact that young ones who is employed and performing their fulltime duty could not attend their school. Similarly for those children who combine their work with their school must face problems in their academic successes and there is a great probability for sure that these kind of children will leave their schools immaturely and they may drop out of their school and join into some permanent service/labour at any stage” (IPEC, ILO: Geneva, 2006).

To ILO “Primary Education in various countries of world is not completely free, but in majority of the developing countries admission in schools is not accessible to all young ones”. For those Parents who direly desire to send their young ones to educational institutions have to face a lot of problems like costs of school clothes, textbooks, school fees, pick and drop, safety, household needs, future strategies etc. In addition they also have to think about the income or wage that the child would earn if he/she was working instead of going to school. They think of the alternative of work but find it really hard. To them however “poverty is a chief pulling aspect of children too early into the labour force”. Similarly “there are some other significant drive aspects as well which strengthens the phenomenon of children employment earlier for poor families rather than to enroll their children in schools which ultimately increases Child Labour and decreases enrollment rate” (IPEC: ILO Geneva, 2006).  

 

Table 3. Numbers of Govt. Primary Schools by District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

District	Boys schools					Girls’ Schools					Boys+ Girls Schools
	Functional	Permanent non functional	Temp closed	Newly constrd	Total	Functional	Permanent non functional	Temp closed	Newly Constructed	Total	Functional	Permanent non functional	Temp closed	Newly constrd	Total
Bannu	90	1	1	2	594	533	17	8	2	560	1123	18	9	4	154
Grand Total	543	4	9	20	12586	8415	134	16	29	8594	20958	148	25	49	1180

 

Table 4. Class-wise Promotion, Repetition and Dropout Rates in Government Schools in 2017-18

Indicator	Kachi	Pakki	Class 2	Class-3	Class 4	Class-5	Class-6	Class 7	Class-8
Promotion Rate	69.74%	85.28%	89.3%	89.77%	86.2%	87.45%	89.29%	92.00%	86.66%
Repetition Rate	3.99%	3.73%	3.75%	3.73%	4.03%	5.59%	4.68%	2.98%	2.42%
Drop Out Rate	26.27%	10.99%	6.89%	6.51%	9.75%	6.96%	6.03%	5.02%	10.91%

 

Table 5. Numbers of Students by Stage in Govt. Schools in 2017-18

All Level Institutions	Boys Schools	Girl Schools	Total	Percentage
Over all Primary (Kachi to 5)	1690347	1425972	3116319	71%
Bannu	60276	46922	107198
Middle (6-8)	492708	321190	813898	19%
Bannu	4446	3560	8006
High (8-10)	233304	139045	372349	8%
Bannu	15056	5485	20541
Higher Secondary (11-12)	50313	27737	78050	2%
Bannu	640	4097	10137
Total	2466672	1913944	4380616	100%

 

Table 6. Number of Working Teachers in All Types of Institutions in 2017-18

All Level Institutions	Male	Female	Total	Percentage
Over all Primary	48,345 63%	28,131 37%	76,476	54%
Bannu	1943	1264	3207
Middle	9406 60%	6260 40%	15,666	11%
Bannu	509	442	951
High	22280 67%	10979 33%	33,259	23%
Bannu	986	525	1511
H. Secondary	11575 67%	5647 33%	17,222	12%
Bannu	451	251		702
Total	91,606 64%	51,017 36%	142,623	100%

 

Table 7. Number of Working Teachers in Govt. Schools by Level in 2017-18 by KP

All level Institutions	Male	Female	Total	Percentage
Government	91,606	51,017	142,623	57%
Non-Government	43515	47356	90871	37%
Deeni Madaris	12084	2764	14848	6%
Total	144,256	98,180	248,342	100%

 

Table 8. Province Wise Literacy Rate in Pakistan

Province /area	2010-13			2013-14
	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total
Pakistan	69	46	58	70	47	58
Rural	63	35	49	64	35	49
Urban	81	67	74	82	68	75
Punjab	70	51	60	70	51	60
Rural	64	42	53	65	41	52
Urban	80	71	76	80	70	75
Sindh	71	46	59	72	47	69
Rural	60	22	42	58	23	41
Urban	82	68	75	85	70	78
KPK	68	33	50	72	35	52
Rural	67	29	48	70	31	50
Urban	77	50	63	80	51	65
Baluchistan	60	19	41	65	23	46
Rural	54	13	35	60	16	40
Urban	79	40	61	79	44	62

Source: Province Wise Literacy 28 Sep, 2014

Research Methodology

Since this study was mixed method in nature so for this purpose the researcher used exploratory sequential design was used. In this study, priority was given to qualitative data. Here the results of the qualitative phase guided the way towards the quantitative phase of the study). Qualitative data was connected to the quantitative results that further explain the results obtained statistically from the phase (I). Findings from the data of the qualitative and quantitative phases were integrated when discussing the meta-inferences that emerged from both the qualitative and quantitative results at the conclusion of the study proceeded by certain recommendations. The visual model of the mixed methods sequential design procedures in this study is presented in figure below.

      Phase                    Procedure                       Product

Figure 1

Visualization of Sequential Mixed Methods Research Design

Here the current study is based on (The Mixed Method Sequential Exploratory Design), because according to Morse, (2003) “the above theoretical framework can be used as a guide for the 2nd phase (Quantitative phase) of this kind of mixed studies used by Creswell & Plato, (2007). Here in this study the results of the qualitative phase were used directly to apprise the quantitative phase. This two phase’s mixed approach enabled the researcher to merge the results emerging from the 1st phase (Qualitative data) to be followed up and enhanced quantitatively in the 2nd (Quantitative phase)”. The researcher followed the prescribed path initially by collection of qualitative data and its analysis and explored phenomenon of interest, which was studied further in quantitative phase of the study. This design helped the researcher by identification of new variables and developed new instruments for the research study. The Quantitative data was collected in the second phase (II) of the study after the successful completion the Qualitative Phase (I) to gain a better understanding to the study identified in Phase I. This approach was based upon the principle that Phase (I) provides the scope of the research and Phase II refines, extends, or explains the scope of the research problem, which enriched the results and limited the biasness if any. The results of the qualitative & quantitative phases were integrated during the discussion of the study’s findings thus creating meta-inferences. In this study, priority was given by the researcher to qualitative data, because prediction of outcomes was emphasized more in the study (i.e. results of qualitative phase guided the quantitative phase of the study). Qualitative data was connected to the quantitative results that further explained it statistically that were obtained from the phase (I). Findings from the data of the qualitative and quantitative phases were integrated when discussing the meta-inferences that emerged from both the qualitative and quantitative results at the conclusion of the study.

Figure 2

Sequential Stages of the Research Study



Figure above shows Sequential stages of the research, Adapted from the exploratory sequential design (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007). 




Quantitative Study Design (Phase-Ii)                                                                    

Data Collection Procedure

After the successful completion of the Qualitative Phase, the researcher entered into the second phase of Quantitative Phase-2, because the first phase provided the basic determinants for both variables (Child Labour, the independent and Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools, the dependent). For collection of Quantitative Data a 3-Point Likert Scale was used by researcher to know the views and perception of parents or guardians and Primary schools teachers who had to respond to the “46 and 42” items (statements) respectively focusing on their perceptions in relation to Child Labour and Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools. The survey was designed for participants (teachers and parents) in a way that it took time 15 to 20 minutes on the average approximately and surveying occurred only once for each participant.    

Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative Data was analyzed by using descriptive as well as inferential statistics. According to Trochim & Donnelly (2007), “Quantitative data analysis of any Quantitative Study concerned only 2 most important steps: a)-Preparation of data and b)-organization data”

In this regard, the same procedure was adopted and applied by the researcher in current study “for quantitative data analysis”, wherein first of all data was prepared and organized in which data was firstly logged, then it was checked for accuracy and finally the data was entered into SPSS (V-24) software (especially designed to analyze, display and transform data in social sciences) which provided the required results.                




Descriptive Statistics

For percentage, frequency, mean and standard deviation, descriptive statistics was used by the researcher. Because to a famous quantitative researcher Muijs (2004), “A common objective in the analysis of data is to competently explain and compute the potency of associations between diverse variables” he further stresses that in this regard “Descriptive Statistics describes such relationships and association very effectively and comprehensively. In this regard, in current study, the researcher followed the said procedure by utilizing Descriptive Statistics and found the relationship between the two variables i.e. Child Labour (independent) and Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools (dependent variables).




Inferential Statistics                  In case of inferential statistics correlation and regression were used to find out the relationship between these variables                                                                                     




Findings and Conclusions

Qualitative Findings of the Interviews

Two approaches were applied for the analysis of Qualitative data analysis. They were: 1- Tag Cloud Analysis, 2- Word Tree Analysis                                                         




TAG Cloud Analysis of the Interview through NVIVO 

Some of the findings and its summary is given below:                                      Analysis that was performed through NVIVO added a lot to the study’s results because it was not possible to draw tree diagrams manually, work out words frequency, count text units or calculate percentage coverage of referenced themes. NVIVO is the software which is suggested by qualitative researchers in their studies frequently. If it was not used here in this study, it was not possible to perform all the activities by the research. In a mixed method research study Creswell and Plato, 2017 suggested that NVIVO may add more to the quality of your analysis QUAL Data, because it provide the most appropriate and systematic themes that will be not be possible through manual analysis and its diagrams more in detail also it is the latest software use in QUAL Data. Likewise, analysis through NVIVO-10 generated “Tag clouds” showed the most frequently used words by Child Labourers and their parents. The Child Labourers open response Tag cloud was quite different from the Parents open-response Tag clouds. Child Labourers Tag cloud analysis was concentrating on Child Labour related factors and pushing reasons, while Parent open-response Tag cloud was focusing on Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools.                    

? Child Labourers open-response Tag cloud demonstrated the five (5) most frequent and important words and phrases: “Poverty”, “Family status”, “Teacher’s Behavior”, “Child status”, and “Location”

? Parent open-response Tag cloud demonstrates the 5 most frequent and important words and phrases: “Provision”, “Participation”, “Enrollment”, “Achievement”, and “Retention”.







Word Tree Analysis Child Labourers Interview Through

Summary of Findings from Word Tree for Child Labour is given below as: Word Tree was based on high frequency words determined by Tag cloud. “Parents” was a high frequency word from Child Labourers open- responses interviews: The word tree of “Parents” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “My parents are very poor” 

? “My parents are uneducated”

? “My parents did not come to school”

? “The parents can admit their children anywhere”

? “My parents were unaware of Govt free scheme of books and admission”.




Visualization of “Child Labour and U. Enrollment” Word Trees

Figure 3

NVIVO Word Tree of “Parents” from Child Labourers Open- Responses



? The word tree of “Job” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “In the city area where job opportunities are in abundance” 

? “I asked him about his job activities”

? “They did not get any job”

Figure 4

NVIVO Word Tree of “job” from Child Labourers Open- Responses



Ø  The word tree of “Support” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “I told that financial support should be provided to poor student”

Ø  “My own needs to support my family income as well”

Ø  “Such a heavy family to support” 

Figure 5

NVIVO Word Tree of “Family” from Child Labourers Open- Responses



Ø  The word tree of “family” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “There is no concept of education in my family”

Ø  “Almost all of family members are working abroad”

Ø  “I belong to a religious family”

Ø   “Regarded as an insult for insult for a family”

Figure 6

NVIVO Word Tree of “Teacher” from Child Labourers Open- Response



Ø  The word tree of “teacher” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “here is just a single teacher”

Ø   “Corporal punishment by teacher”

Ø   “Left the school due to teacher harsh behavior”

Ø  “The teacher punished me cruelly”

Figure 7

NVIVO Word Tree of “Left the school” from Child Labourers Open-Responses



Ø  The word tree of “Left the school ” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “But unfortunately Raqibaz has left the school due to teacher”

Ø  “Harshly that most children have left schools”

Ø  “No one sir would left the schools due to unavailability”

Ø  “That have enrolled but have left out my school”

Figure 8

NVIVO Word Tree of “Children” from Child Labourers Open- Responses



Ø  The word tree of “Children” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “To enroll all children in school”

Ø  “Their dropped-out children in school”

Ø  “Large number of schools for children in villages”

Ø  “Always used to punish his children in schools”

Ø  “Other children especially girls”

Figure 9

NVIVO Word Tree of “Girl” from Child Labourers Open- Responses



Ø  The word tree of “Girls” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “due to this reason all girls have been enrolled there”

Ø  “Boys and girls have used to leave”

Ø  “Hardly 3 or 4 girls have been enrolled”

Ø  “Education especially for poor family’s girls like to enroll

Figure 10

NVIVO Word Tree of “far away” from Child Labourers Open- Responses



Ø  The word tree of “far away” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “school is a little far away from my home”

Ø  “Set off to their far away school early”

Ø  “And flown away me from the education”

Figure 11

NVIVO Word Tree of “Educational Institution” from Child Labourers Open-Responses



Ø  The word tree of “educational” from Child Labourers open-responses shows “admission because of very high educational expenditures”

Ø  “Whether there is any educational institution in your village”

Ø  “For us to have educational institution whether on our doorstep”

 

Themes as Determinants of Child Labour through NVIVO

Note: Although there were number of themes, but to me these were selected for Child Labour                                                                                                             Themes as Determinants of Child Labour is numerically described through text units and its coverage in percentage is given below:

 

Poverty

Poverty was also justified as a very important reason of Child Labour in the Child Labourers. The “results of searches using QSR (NVIVO-10) has also confirmed the importance of this very theme with 88 text units and with 88% of coverage, referenced to this theme (Poverty)”. The importance of Poverty in the Child Labourers in this study was elucidated as well by the participants in their interviews as can be seen in respectively.

 

Family Status

Family status was judged to be another very important reason of Child Labour in child labourers. The “results of searches using QSR (NVIVO-10) has also confirmed the importance of this very theme with 82 text units and with 78% of coverage, referenced to this theme (Family status)”. The importance of family status in the Child Labourers in this study was clarified as well by the participants in their interviews as can be observed in interview respectively.

 

Teacher’s Behavior

Teacher’s Behavior was justified to be another important reason of Child Labour in the Child Labourers. The “results of searches provided by using QSR (NVIVO-10) has confirmed the importance of this very theme too with 72 text units and with 66% of coverage, referenced to this theme”. The importance of Teacher’s Behavior in the Child Labourers was elucidated as well by different participants in their respective interviews as can be found in interviews.

 

Child Status

Child Status was refereed to be another very important reason of Child Labour in child labourers, because the “results of searches using QSR (NVIVO-10) has confirmed the importance of this theme with 84 text units and with 60% of coverage, referenced to this theme. The importance of Child Status in the Child Labourers in this study was clarified as well by the interviewees in their interviews as can be observed in interviews respectively.

 

Location                                                                                                                                                                             Location was given due importance in the literature review, and there were number of citations focusing on the importance of Location or locality in the interviews as well. The theme (Location) was time and again viewed in the data as being an important cause Child Labour in child labourers, with 60 text units with 52 per cent of coverage, being referenced to the theme location in QSR (NVIVO-10). This due weight-age of Location was also propped up and clarified by the participants in their respective interviews as in interview.

 

Themes as Determinants of Universalization of Enrollment in Primary School Note: Although there were number of themes, but to me these were selected for Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools

Themes as Determinants of Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools are numerically described through text units and its coverage in percentage is described in the following way:

 

Provision

Provision was given very much importance in the literature review, and there were number of citations focusing on the importance of Provision (likewise provision of schools, teachers, basic facilities, free books, uniform and pick and drop facility in the interviews as well. The theme (Provision) was repeatedly viewed in the data as being an important obstruction in the way of Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools, with 220 text units and with 96 per cent of coverage, being referenced to this theme (Provision) in QSR (NVIVO-10). This significant importance of Provision was also supported and clarified by the participants in their respective interviews as in interview respectively. So provisions of these basic facilities are one the biggest obstacle in Universalization of enrollment in primary schools in District Bannu

 

Participation

Participation was given very much importance, because there were a number of citations focusing on the importance of Participation (likewise Participation of parents, family members, community members elder of the society and religious people etc) in the interviews as well. The theme (Participation) was repeatedly observed in the data as being an important barrier in the way of Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools, with 92 text units and with 87 per cent of coverage, being referenced to this theme (Participation) in QSR (NVIVO-10). This significance of Provision was also supported and clarified by the participants in their respective interviews as in interview respectively in the study’s data. Hence it is concluded that participation of family and community is one the biggest obstacle in Universalization of enrollment in primary schools in District Bannu

 

Enrollment

Enrollment was also mentioned to be a very important barrier in the way of UPE, because there were so many of citations focusing on Enrollment (like enrollment campaigns, lack of Govt attention towards enrollment, problems in I initial enrolment etc) in the interviews as well. The theme (Enrollment) was repetitively seen in the data as being an important obstacle in the way of Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools, with 94 text units and with 82 % of coverage, being referenced to this theme in QSR (NVIVO-10). This importance of Enrollment was also supported by the interviewee in their respective interviews as it can be seen in interview respectively in the study’s data. Hence it can be rightly said that full flag enrollment campaigns by the govt, society and stakeholders is one the biggest obstacle in Universalization of enrollment in primary schools in District Bannu

 

Achievement

Achievement was also preferred to be a very important obstacle in the way of UPE, as declared in the in the interviews by the children’s parents and guardians, because there were so many of citations focusing on Achievement for instance (low quality of education, un-interesting teaching methodology, un-interesting course and study materials and outdated curriculum etc)) in the interviews as well. The theme (Achievement) was repetitively seen in the data as being an important blockage of Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools, with 88 text units and with 78 % of coverage, being referenced to this theme in QSR (NVIVO-10). This importance of Achievement was also supported by the interviewee in their respective interviews as it can be seen in interview respectively in this study’s data. So it can be rightly said that to make full flag enrollment of children, the govt, society and stakeholders should come forward to make education goal oriented and make the difference between the educated and non educated citizen which one the biggest obstacle in Universalization of enrollment in primary schools in District Bannu

 

Retention                                                                                                                                                   Retention was considered and preferred an important obstacle in the way of UPE as well, as declared in the in the interviews by the children’s parents and guardians, because there were various of citations focused on Retention for example (left the school, leave from that day, say good bye to school, left the institution in the midsession, in the mid way etc)) in the interviews as well. The theme (Retention) was frequently seen in the data as being an important stumbling block in the way of Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools, with 79 text units and with 75 % of coverage, being referenced to this theme in QSR (NVIVO-10). This importance of Retention was also hold up by the interviewee in their respective interviews as it can be witnessed in interview respectively in this study’s data. So it should be controlled by the all pillars of the society to make sure that children should stay in their respective educational institutions for at least 5 years consecutively to boost literacy rate up to 100 percent.

 

Table 9. Rank Order of Perceptions of Teachers in Context of Poverty and Universalization Enrollment in Primary Schools (N=150)

S. No	Statements	Mean	S. D
1	Non affordability of school fee and other charges by parents	2.83	.86
2	Increasing work load of labour/households on children	2.80	.80
3	Intention of children to help the jobless or poor parents	2.78	.42
4	Increasing demands of financial support to the families by the children	2.74	.46
5	Intention of children to maximize income to meet the domestic needs	2.73	.51
6	Uneducated family members of the children	2.72	.49
7	Increasing mode of educational expenses	2.66	.50
Overall Mean of Poverty		2.74	.50

Table 10. Rank Order of Perceptions of Teachers in Context of Family Status and Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools (N=150)

S. No	Statements	Mean	S. D
1	Family misconception regarding next level/class education for their children	2.88	.34
2	Full time in Madrassah education by the children	2.80	.43
3	Parents prefer religious education not school education for children	2.78	.42
4	Family members pressure not to attend the school	2.78	.44
5	Handle his own (father/relative) business/work/job seriously	2.77	.45
6	Father’s early death of the children	2.75	.46
7	Continuous migration of family from one place to another	2.74	.53
Overall Mean of Family Status		2.78	.44

Summary and Conclusions

This study titled as “Child Labour: A Challenge for Universalization Enrollment in Primary Schools at District Bannu” was Mixed Method (QUAL+QUAN) in nature. The study consisted of two variables i.e. Child Labour as an independent, while Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools as dependent variable. Since both the variables have no nationally or internationally established and accepted standards (determinants), so first the researcher derived determinants for both the variables i.e. independent variable Child Labour (Poverty, Location, Family Status, Child Status and Teacher’s Behavior) and the dependent variable Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools (Provision, Enrollment, Participation, Retention and Achievement) by using Manual as well as NVIVO-10 analysis. Twenty interviewers from both male and female and from both the categories (admitted children and never admitted children) of the said age group 5-14 years were selected randomly from the home District (Bannu). Briefly, Child Labourers were divided into two categories. Category-1 (children who were admitted initially to the schools and then dropped out of their schools in the middle or any stage of the session) and category-2 (children who were never been admitted to any school). The interviews were conducted by the researcher himself from the male children, while from the female children interviews were taken by the researcher’s wife who is a professional PST teacher in local school, because of the traditions of the locality. Before interviews a consent form with the permission from their parents or owners of the profession was filled. Quantitative data was collected from primary school teachers and parents of the Child Labourers through Questionnaires. This study has these objectives: to explore the determinants of Child Labour and Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools, to identify different factors responsible for Child Labour as perceived by parents of the Child Labourers, to find out different kinds of hurdles in the Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools as experienced by Teachers, to analyze the impact of Child Labour on Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools. The objectives were supported by few research questions as well. To obtain the most appropriate and accurate results from the collected Quantitative Data SPSS (V-24) was used as Descriptive Statistics in terms of Percentage, Mean and Standard Deviation, while Correlation and Regression was used as an Inferential Statistics for the analysis. In the end it was found that Child Labour which is caused either by poverty, teacher’s behavior, child status, family status or location is a real and the biggest challenge for Universalization of Enrollment in Primary Schools. So it is recommended and very needed to eradicate and eliminate Child Labour through successful implementation of universal basic primary education without any further delay.

Recommendations of the Study

? We are all Muslims and our religion Islam teaches us a lesson of equality    among male and female in every walk of life, so it is recommended to the parents to give equal rights to each male or female child by enrolling them in schools without any gender discrimination. If anyhow labour is necessary for their earning in the morning they may take advantage of the 2nd shifts schools opportunity provided by the Gov’t to enroll them. This may be one of the mean for enrollment of new children in schools

? Teaching learning process is of course a joint adventure of parents and school authorities, no single school can perform any activity without the active participation of parents. So it is recommended to the parents to actively and regularly take part in all school related activities carried out there to keep themselves full aware not only of their own children academic achievement and performances, but the overall performance of school in co-curricular activities as well. In this way more children and parent can be motivated and attracted towards schools and hence ultimately enrollment rate will increase.                                                                                                                                                                                                                 

? Parents teacher councils are already been made now a days in each and every school & also have shown good & satisfactory results as well regarding either in boosting literacy rate or other financial matters, but a moment of concern is that parents feel hesitation and did not attend and participate full heartedly in PTC monthly meeting,  so it is recommended to the parents that they may attend and cooperate regularly with the school authorities not only for the betterment of school related matters, but also in the formation of sound behavior of teachers to control the drop out of children from school caused by the harsh behavior of teachers to some extent. This bold step may increase trust of the society on school which ultimately boost enrollment rate.                                                                     

? From the conclusions of this study ‘poverty’ is the one of the biggest pushing force of child labour and an obstacle in the way of Universalization of Enrollment in primary schools, so it is recommended to provide regular stipends and financial aids to poor children to listen their school related costs so that parents may enroll their children without fear of their livelihood. 

? There is a huge amount of such female children as well who work in the hidden households activities inside their owner houses, because female children also make a fair amount of the country’s population, so it is recommended that this study may be replicated specially to those Girl Child Labourers who are at work in the hidden household activities to increase literacy rate.     

? Any educational institution may not be successfully or smoothly run by the school authorities without any participation of parents or society, so it is recommended to the teachers that they may thoroughly be in contact not only with the parents of the children, but with the active members of the society as well to get their support in gradual removal of the false beliefs and misconceptions regarding education especially female education. This step will definitely increase enrollment rate.    

? Gov’t: is very keen to boost literacy rate and to stop the early drop out of children from the schools. For this purpose they have prepared some specific rules and code of conduct as well, so it is recommended to the teachers that they may strictly abide by these rules and code of conduct by bringing positive change in their behavior in order to ensure maximum retention of children in schools to complete their primary education at least. This will too attract new comer to schools as they were not initially admitted by their elders earlier.

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